Whether drug-use causes crime or crime triggers drug-use remains unclear |
Notwithstanding the fact that an unauthorised production, distribution or
use of narcotics constitutes a crime in itself under Criminal Law and 64% of prisoners
in England and Wales reported having used illicit substances in the four weeks
before custody (Prison Reform Trust, 2014:7), it seems difficult to establish a
logical interpretation to clarify the relationship between drug use and crime.
Regarding this point, Philip Bean claimed that "for whilst there is
considerable anecdotal evidence, aided by some research that drug use causes
crime, the closer we get to establishing a causal connection, the more
difficult things become" (Bean, 2008:19). Although it is crucial to
conceptualise a causal relationship between drug use and crime in order to
devise an effective solution to drug-related problems, Bean noted that
"most studies go no further than establishing a correlation or say that
drug use is associated with criminality" (Bean, 2008:22). This essay will attempt to disclose the
relationship between drug use and crime. A brief introduction to the two key
explanatory models, which examine the drug-crime link, will be given, followed
by a proposal for tackling drug-related issues.
Whilst there have been various attempts to clarify the drug-crime
relationship, since both drug use and
crime comprehend an extensive range of human behaviours, some academics
have deliberately restricted the subject of research to the particular forms of
drug use or acquisitive crime in order to understand the causality more
precisely (Hale, 2009:171). James A.
Inciardi's research on heroin use and street crime is one such example, which
examined 356 active heroin users, including 239 males and 117 females (Newburn,
2013:496-499). Inciardi discovered a very frequent involvement in criminal
activities among these heroin users that the 356 persons participated in the
study "reported involvement in a total of 118,134 criminal offences during
a twelve month period", which is averaging over 300 offences per
participant (Newburn, 2012:498). Unsurprisingly, however, 99.6% of the male
participants and 98.3% of the female participants reported having ever
committed crime and 93.7% and 83.8% respectively reported having been arrested
at least once (Newburn, 2012:497). According to Inciardi, "most of these
offences committed for the purpose of supporting the economic needs of a
drug-using career", such as burglary, robbery, theft, prostitution and
drug sales (Newburn, 2012:497).
Both male and female heroin users have committed a number of crimes to
support their habits, however, there is considerable gender differences in the
forms of crime. For example, whilst male users are more likely to commit
violent property crimes, including burglary and robbery, female users are more
likely to commit non-violent property crimes, such as shoplifting and
prostitution (Newburn, 2012:497). One possible explanation for the gender
disparities in the forms of crime is the impact of abstinence symptom on
testosterone levels, which is widely known as a substance that facilitates
aggression and criminality (Goleman, 1990). Mendelson's clinical research on
testosterone and heroin use elucidates the effects of heroin addiction on the
human body that whilst a constant use of heroin is closely associated with
lowering testosterone levels, the recovery of testosterone levels has been
observed after about one month of heroine abstinence (Mendelson, 1975:1). It is
known that men's testosterone levels are higher than women's levels, however,
it can be argued that the recovery of testosterone levels among male heroin
users, who may suffer from addiction withdrawal symptoms, triggers unstable
physical and mental conditions thereby commit crimes. Although the authenticity
of the effects of testosterone has been challenged by many professionals
(Wright, 2009:208-209), assuming that testosterone has such an effect that increases ferocity and male heroin
users originally have a higher level of testosterone, it may be possible to
explain the differences in the forms of crime. However, it certainly requires
further research to reinforce this argument.
Whereas Inciardi's study on heroin use and street crime suggests that
there is a certain level of correlation between them, it is still difficult to
assume that the research contains a conclusive evidence to establish a causal
relationship between drug use and crime. Although Inciardi implicated that
property crimes are basically driven by heroin addiction, whether the
involvement in drug use causes crime or the involvement in criminal activity
induces drug use remain unclear and Mendelson's testosterone study presented
the possibility that there are some other ways to explain the relationship
between heroin use and crime.
Whilst Inciardi's research indicated several approaches to conceptualise
the relationship between drug use and crime, Bean argued that there are two
major explanatory models in relation to the drug-crime link, which may possibly
be used as evidence to describe the relationship. According to Bean, these two
models are drug use leads to crime or crime leads to drug use (Bean,
2008:23-24).
Regarding the first model, Newburn stated that "there are a number
of ways in which it is theoretically possible for drug use to lead crime"
that can be broadly categorised into three key explanations, namely
pharmacological, financial, and systemic explanations (Newburn, 2013:500).
Pharmacological explanations, for instance, concern with the effects of
narcotics on the individual's action. It assumes that drug addicts offences are
resulted from "the ingestion of specific substances where users become
excitable, irrational or exhibit criminal and violent behaviour" (Bean,
2008:27) and numerous studies regarding the impact of narcotics use on the
human body have revealed that drugs have a significant physical and
psychological effects on users (NHS, 2015). Although the effects of narcotics,
such as severe depression, anxiety and paranoia, seem relevant to criminal
activities, Bean argued that "it is not easy to determine" that these
unpleasant effects directly trigger crimes as it cannot exclude the possibility
that "the need to raise money to buy drugs or the nature of illicit
markets may stimulate or augment a great deal of criminal behaviour"
(Bean, 2008:27). Hence, the nature of link between pharmacological effects of
drugs and criminal tendencies "tends to be less direct, being at least
partly dependent on, or mediated by, the characteristics and disposition of the
individual as well as more general cultural expectations" (Newburn,
2013:500). Financial explanations, in contrast, are "given most attention
in the research literature" and it is also used by Inciardi to describe
the relationship between heroin use and street crime (Newburn, 2013:500).
According to Newburn, not just Inciardi's study but also many other studies on
drug-related crimes indicated that imminent financial needs among drug addicts
drive them to commit property crime to support their habits. Therefore,
financial explanations are based on the assumption that "the drug user is
unable to control their consumption and unable to fund their use through
regular employment", which forces them to commit crime (Newburn, 2013:500).
Lastly, systemic explanations attempt to link "drug use with crime through
broader contextual factors", by expanding the attention to the whole drug
markets and drug distribution networks (Bean, 2008:27). That is to say that the
involvement in drug use usually links drug users to criminal activities, which
are associated with drug markets, such as disputes over drug selling, conflict
with the police or police corruption (Newburn, 2013:500-501). Bean noted that
systemic approaches open up "new ways of thinking and a corresponding
range of new opportunities for research on the pervasive impact of the drug
problem" (Bean, 2008:34).
Conversely, however, the second model is based on the assumption that
people who have criminal tendencies or people who have already involved in
criminal activities lead to drug use. According to Measham and South, some
studies provide evidence that drug users would have been already involved in
criminal activities before they started using narcotics (Maguire et al.,
2012:706). It seems possible to argue that the involvement in criminal-oriented
lifestyle would be likely to lead criminals to encounter the availability of
illicit substances sold within that culture and their deviant lifestyle would
facilitate deviant drug use with relative ease (Maguire et al., 2012:706).
Whilst Inciardi's research suggested that heroin use causes crime, it is
difficult to exclude the possibility that "while money from criminal
activity might then pay for the drugs, it was not drug addiction or use per se
which led to the perpetration of crime" (Maguire et al., 2012:706).
In addition to these two explanatory models, there are some other models
that attempt to understand the drug-crime relationship, such as a model, which
assumed that drug use and crime have a common aetiology (Bean, 2008:24).
However, none of these models have successfully established a strong causal
relationship yet and Bean noted, "whilst there is a clear and significant
statistical relationship, causal connections are more difficult to
establish" (Bean, 2008:23).
Although it is difficult to establish a clear
relationship, if researchers should succeed in establishing a reliable theory
to explain the drug-crime relationship, the impact of it on the field of social
policy will be significant. If drug use causes crime then treatment for
substance abuse should be anticipated to reduce crime rates and if crime
triggers drug abuse then drug treatment will not affect crime rates, in which
case the adequate response is to treat the criminality (Bean, 2008:22).
In conclusion, there are two key explanatory models that examine the
drug-crime relationship, namely drug use causes crime and crime causes drug
abuse. Inciardi's research on heroin use and street crime suggested that the
financial explanations for drug-crime relationship is relatively reliable,
however, it is difficult to claim that the research has produced conclusive
evidence. Although whether drugs cause crime or crime triggers drug use remains
unclear despite there have been many studies to elucidate the relationship, it
is crucial to mention that the successful establishment of a causal
relationship between drug use and crime will formulate an effective approach to
reduce drug-related issues.